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The concepts of leader and leadership in Islam
1-28-2026
In reviewing the vast body of Seerah literature (life-history of the noble messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace) produced by Muslims, Dr Kalim Siddiqui (1931-1996) made the perceptive observation that almost all of it was in a chronological order and was descriptive rather than analytical. Little or no attempt appears to have been made to derive lessons from the Seerah, especially studying it from the power perspective, to re-order Muslim societies [1]. Such scant attention to the fundamental aspects of the Seerah is quite astonishing since Allah describes the Prophet's character in the noble Qur'an as "uswatun hasana" (‘the most beautiful pattern of conduct,' 33:21), who "was sent to bring humanity out of darkness into light" (Al-Qur'an 65:11). Allah also commands obedience to the Prophet (Al-Qur'an 4:59; 8:20; 64:12), the last and final messenger of Allah (Al-Qur'an 33:40) sent to all humanity (Al-Qur'an 7:158). Without a proper understanding of the Seerah, Muslims can neither follow his example fully nor obey him in the manner as commanded by Allah.
This lack of power perspective in the Seerah literature is probably one of the greatest failings of Muslim scholars and intellectuals. Rather magnanimously, Dr Siddiqui suggests that the reason might be found in the "politically dominant position of Islam, indeed the geographically expanding dominion and power of Islam" in early Islamic history which "persuaded the early compilers of the Seerah to concentrate on issues of the personal qualities of the Prophet, upon whom be peace." This, according to the late scholar, led them to follow "the simple historical method of compiling a chronological record of events with great accuracy. There was no attempt to link early events with later events, or to discover patterns in the Seerah as guides to the underlying methods used by the Prophet, upon whom be peace" [2].
The conditions that prevailed at the time of the early compilers no longer exist today. Far from Islam being politically dominant or geographically expanding, Muslims have lost political power, and the frontiers of Islam are shrinking. More critically, they are dominated today by the globalised power ofkufr. This is not unlike the state of jahiliyya (primitive savagery) and darkness that the noble messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace, confronted and finally subdued in Arabia during his lifetime. Thus, a study of the Seerah from the power perspective can help Muslims understand the nature of oppression and darkness that surrounds them today and help them to overcome it.
The essence of the Seerah is the exercise of power and authority to achieve the divine purpose, and this is linked to leadership. Allah says twice in the noble Qur'an: "He it is who has sent the Prophet with guidance and the Deen of Truth so that it may become dominant over all other systems, however much the mushrikeen may be averse to it" (Al-Qur'an 9:33, 61:09). To make Islam dominant again, Muslims will have to acquire power by repeating the method of the noble messenger of Allah; i.e. following his Sunnah (life-example) and Seerah. Even when he was without power in Makkah, the Prophet was the leader of the small group of Muslims, over whom he exercised authority. After thehijra (migration) from Makkah to Madinah, he established the Islamic state and became its ruler. The Prophet thus combined in his person the authority of the messenger, head of state, and commander of the army. The Seerah, therefore, offers an important lesson in leadership, an essential pre-requisite for transforming any society into an Islamic state. This process of transformation is the quintessential model for all Muslims as they struggle to transform their societies.
With the end of the Prophet's mission on earth, Prophetic history as well as Prophetic leadership also came to an end (33:40). Muslims must now choose their leader according to the guidelines provided in the Qur'an and as exemplified by the Seerah. We, therefore, need to ask what the requirements for leadership in Islam are; who qualifies to be leader; how and by whom he is chosen; and what his duties and responsibilities are.
Divine and Popular legitimacy
In his paper on the Seerah, Mohammed al-Asi has identified three key concepts for leadership: legitimacy, authority and power [3]. The Islamic concept of legitimacy needs further elucidation because it differs fundamentally from other systems. In Islam, there are two types of legitimacies: divine and popular. While most other systems consider popular legitimacy (that is, the will of the majority) as the only determining criterion, Islam requires divine legitimacy (that is, legitimacy acceptable to Allah) as an essential pre-requisite. Divine legitimacy is acquired when the leader obeys Allah and the Prophet; only then is he entitled to people's obedience (Al-Qur'an 4:59). Divine legitimacy thus forms the basis for popular legitimacy. Leadership in Islam must have both divine as well as popular legitimacy; without the first, it cannot have validity; without the second, it remains unfulfilled.
As divine legitimacy is bestowed by Allah subhanahu wa ta‘ala Himself, it follows that all Prophets had divine legitimacy; but not all of them, however, acquired popular legitimacy. The Qur'an tells us that only a few Prophets became rulers: Yusuf, Daud, Sulaiman and Muhammad, upon them all be peace. Other Prophets delivered their message but the people to whom it was addressed refused to accept it.
Popular legitimacy does not automatically follow from divine legitimacy. It invariably requires a period of struggle but in order for it to be valid, it must be underpinned by divine legitimacy. It also needs emphasizing that the divine message is not implemented in a vacuum; it requires an audience, that is a society, for its actualisation. When it is not enforced or enforcible, the mission remains incomplete. In this sense, the mission of the Prophet Muhammad, upon whom be peace, was the most successful because he achieved control over a territory where the laws of Islam were fully implemented. The converse is equally true: if the Prophetic message is not fully implemented in society, it remains incomplete. Similarly, popular legitimacy without divine legitimacy is unacceptable and is considered a rebellion against the commands of Allah.
We must now turn to the requirements for leadership in Islam in a more general sense, and the qualities a person must possess to become a leader as well as the tasks he must perform.
The Qur'an highlights an important aspect of Islam's concept of leadership. After successfully completing a number of tests, Prophet Ibrahim is given the glad tidings that he has been appointed Imam (leader) of all the people. "What about my progeny?" asks Ibrahim. "My covenant does not include the dhalimeen (oppressors)", comes the divine reply (Al-Qur'an 2:124). An important point emerges from this dialogue: an oppressor is not fit to be leader of the Muslims, regardless of what other qualities he may possess. Implicit in this ayat are two other points about leadership: to be legitimate, it must have divine sanction and, Islam rejects the concept of hereditary leadership; each person must qualify for it on merit.
Man in the generic sense is Allah's khalifah (vicegerent or representative) on earth (Al-Qur'an 2:30; 6:166; 38:26). This immediately imposes certain constraints on him; he is not free to act as he chooses nor must he submit to the wishes of any group, be it a majority or an influential minority; he must act only to implement Allah's laws on earth. There is thus a fundamental difference between the Islamic concept of leadership and that of other systems where aspirants to high office often say and do what the people want irrespective of their merit.
The Prophetic hadith that even if three Muslims are on a journey, they must choose one as leader, emphasizes the importance of leadership. Whenever the Prophet left Madinah, he would appoint someone as leader in his absence [4].
Leader or ruler?
It may be appropiate to clarify the difference between a leader and a ruler at this stage. While the two are often used interchangeably, they are not the same. A leader has certain inherent qualities quite independent of any office he may hold. These include both qualities of personal character (taqwa ) and the ability to motivate others towards the realisation of specific goals or objectives. Inherent in this is also the assumption that his leadership is accepted by the people; he has not imposed himself by physical force or other coercive means. Similarly, his authority is not dependent on any office he may hold. The ruler's authority, on the other hand, is linked directly to his office; without it, he may be powerless and, therefore, quite ineffective. Examples of this kind abound everywhere in the world today. Thus, a monarch, president or a prime minister may not necessarily be suited for the job but each derives his authority from the office he holds.
In nature, there is a hierarchy based on power. The dictum ‘might is right' applies in the jungle, but human beings also frequently resort to it. Islam, on the other hand, regulates power differentiation so that it does not lead to injustice in society. This is crucial because the holder of office exercises power and authority over others which can easily lead to abuse.
The role of a leader
Allah sent a chain of Prophets with revelations to transform humanity from a state of jahiliyya to one of islam (submission to His will). Allah says in the noble Qur'an: "I have not created the Jinn and Ins(human beings) except to worship Me" (Al-Qur'an 51:56). Human beings must, therefore, live according to the laws of Allah. This can best be done in the framework of the Islamic state, the natural habitat of Muslims. If the Islamic state does not exist, it becomes the duty of Muslims to strive to establish one. Since every Muslim is part of the Islamic movement, it is the duty of the leader to guide it to establish the Islamic state.
Let us elaborate this point through a metaphor. Suppose we consider the Islamic movement to be a diamond in its raw form; the leader in our metaphor is the master craftsman whose task is to shape this raw material into the best end-product -- the Islamic state and an Islamic society. While the diamond-cutter cannot improve the quality of the original material, the leader of the Islamic movement faces no such constraints. The Islamic movement has the potential to improve; the leader can bring out the best in it by constant exhortations, education and training. The role of the leader is not only to demonstrate his own qualities but also to bring out the best in those whom he leads. His job is to transform society by leading the Islamic movement to fulfil its divinely-ordained mission. This is best demonstrated by how the noble Messenger of Allah tranformed the society in Arabia. Steeped injahiliyya, the people were brought into the light of Islam (Al-Qur'an 65:11); they were inspired and motivated by the Prophet to reject the established order and struggle to establish the Islamic state. Once the state came into existence, the companions were prepared to defend it with their wealth and with their lives (Al-Qur'an 61:11).
Personal qualities of a leader
We have already seen from the Qur'anic ayah above (Al-Qur'an 2:124) what disqualifies a person from becoming a leader. We must now examine the qualities a person must possess in order to qualify for leadership in Islam. Some of these are enumerated in the ayah in which Allah addresses the Prophet:
"It was by the mercy of Allah that you (O Prophet) were lenient with them, for if you had been stern and hard-hearted, they would have dispersed from around you. So forgive them and seek mercy for them and consult with them in the conduct of affairs. And when you have resolved [on an issue], then put your trust in Allah. Lo! Allah loves those who put their trust in Him" (Al-Qur'an 3:159).
A number of points are highlighted: a leader must be kind, compassionate, and forgiving towards those whom he leads. If he is harsh with them, they will abandon him. He must also consult them but once a decision has been made, Allah then commands that no weakness be shown and the policy be pursued with singlemindedness of purpose, determination and courage.
A good example of this occurred prior to the battle of Uhud. When leaders of the Ansar realized that the decision to go out of the city to fight was contrary to the wishes of the Prophet, they wanted to reverse it. The Prophet, upon whom be peace, however, felt that once it was decided, they must abide by it. He also reminded them that they must obey the Prophet, only then will Allah grant them victory [5]. This episode emphasizes the importance of the leader being resolute and the people being obedient to him. Qualities of mercy and forgiveness by the leader are stressed in other ayaat of the Qur'an (9:128; 15:88).
Imam Ali, the fourth khalifah, in discussing the qualities of a leader said:
"O People! You know that it is not fitting that one who is greedy and parsimonious should attain rule and authority over the honour, lives and incomes of the Muslims, and the laws and ordinances enforced among them, and also leadership of them. Furthermore, he should not be ignorant and unaware of the law, lest in his ignorance he misleads the people. He must not be unjust and harsh, causing people to cease all traffic and dealings with him because of his oppressiveness. Nor must he fear states, so that he seeks the friendship of some and treats others with enmity. He must refrain from accepting bribes when he sits in judgement, so that the rights of men are trampled underfoot and the claimant does not receive his due. He must not leave the Sunnah of the Prophet and the law in abeyance, so that the community falls into misguidance and peril." [6]
Based on the foregoing, we can identify the following qualities for leadership:
Knowledge and Hikmah (wisdom, insight);
Taqwa ;
‘Adl (Justice) and Rahmah (compassion);
Courage and bravery;
Shura (mutual consultation);
Decisiveness and being resolute;
Eloquence;
Spirit of self-sacrifice;
Sabr (Patience).
Footnotes:
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